Beytulhikme An International Journal of Philosophy, Year 2025 Issue 15:4

Spinoza and the New Realism: Exploring the Meillassoux Example

Çetin Balanuye — 2025-12-31

New Realism, which emerged with the critique of correlationism—a stance said to be dominantly shaped by Kant and subsequent thought—is increasingly becoming a noteworthy contemporary school. This philosophical intervention places at its center the discussion of the existence, nature, and most crucially, the accessibility of an autonomous reality independent of human cognition. Central to this debate is the French philosopher Quentin Meillassoux, who introduced the term “correlationism” and delineated the core axes of this discourse. However, Meillassoux’s new realist perspective, particularly developed in his seminal work After Finitude, seems to distance itself from certain thinkers who, historically, could be seen as offering significant preparatory frameworks for his approach. Chief among these thinkers is Spinoza. What justifies this apparent distance? The primary rationale appears to be as follows: Meillassoux’s philosophical program inevitably pits the “metaphysics of necessity” against the “metaphysics of contingency,” whereby Spinoza is positioned within the former and Meillassoux within the latter. In this paper, I argue that this presupposed distance is unfounded. I aim to demonstrate that Spinoza, in nearly every respect, can and should be considered a pivotal initial catalyst for realism in general, and for Meillassouxian speculative materialism in particular.

At the Limits of What Can Be Said: The Philosophy Established and Destroyed by the Tractatus

Tayfun Torun — 2025-12-31

In this article, Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is examined as both the founding and critical threshold of the tradition of analytical philosophy, with the aim of elucidating not only its definitional ambiguities but also its internal tensions. While the linguistic analysis, logical priority, anti-psychologism, and metaphysical opposition that characterize analytical philosophy are discussed in their historical and conceptual diversity, the Tractatus is shown to be the most rigid formulation of these tendencies. However, this rigidity is also the basis for dissolution: Wittgenstein's language, which confines meaning solely to the factual realm, limits philosophy to silence. Thus, while the Tractatus crystallizes the analytic tradition within the precise boundaries of language, it simultaneously condemns it to its own silence. In this sense, the text represents not merely a beginning but a radical critique that undermines the very foundations of analytic philosophy.

Criticisms of Frege's Antipsychologism

Mahmut Sami Özdil — 2025-12-31

This article examines Gottlob Frege’s arguments against psychologism and surveys a range of modern critiques and reinterpretations of his position. Frege holds that logic comprises normative and universal laws, independent of individual psychological processes. In contrast, psychologism seeks to ground logic in mental activity, which Frege decisively rejects, proposing instead that meanings and truths reside in an objective “third realm.” The article discusses responses from five key perspectives: Husserl, Quine, Dummett, Putnam, and the trio Pelletier, Elio, and Hanson. These thinkers either reinforce, revise, or challenge Frege’s core assumptions regarding logic, truth, and meaning. While Frege's antipsychologism had a formative role in 20th-century logic and philosophy of language, contemporary debates show a more nuanced spectrum of positions, reevaluating the boundaries between logic and psychology.

From Doxa to Post-Truth: The Epistemic Frailty of the Human Mind

Zeynep Berke — 2025-12-31

Post-truth is a multifaceted and multi-layered problematic that encompasses not only factors unique to our age, but also elements that have accompanied the biological and cultural history of humanity from the very beginning. Existing literature on post-truth largely focuses on external factors such as political manipulations, media strategies and social dynamics, while the cognitive tendencies that play a central role in the emergent epistemic crisis are usually only partially and limitedly addressed. Yet, the sole reason for the devaluation of truth is not only external manipulations, but also the cognitive biases inherent in our mental structuring and the epistemic frailty that emerges under their influence. This finding is important in that it transforms the phenomenon of post-truth from being solely a problem of misinformation into an issue originating from the very structure of the human mind. Thus, the main purpose of this study is to reveal how cognitive biases actively shape the ways in which individuals select, interpret and reject information, and to address the individual and social strategies that can be used to combat the negative consequences of these biases.

From “I Am” to Incorporeality: The Educational Role of the Flying Man

Bilge Sever Kıyak — 2025-12-31

This article reinterprets Avicenna’s “Flying Man” as a phenomenological and pedagogical exercise rather than a conclusive metaphysical proof. Examining three main versions (Shifāʾ Nafs I.5, Nafs V.7, and Ishārāt X) it argues that the experiment first secures an immediate, prereflective awareness of self (“I am”) and then directs the reader toward the thesis of the nafs’ incorporeality. Avicenna instructs us to build the scenario with imagination (khayāl) and estimation (wahm) as didactic scaffolding; once these faculties are bracketed, what remains is a direct awareness of self’s own existence. Since this awareness is achived by a phenomenological process, it does not commit the “masked-man fallacy” of reasoning from ignorance of the body to its non-identity with the self. In this way, the Flying Man highlights the psychological dimension of Avicenna’s method which is self-awareness emerges as the immediate result, incorporeality as a subsequent implication. Recognizing this sequence clarifies the experiment’s role within Avicenna’s philosophy of mind.

Artifıcial Intelligence: An Analysis from the Perspective of Nazariyat

Süleyman Dönmez — 2025-12-31

Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems can mimic human capabilities in areas such as speaking, writing, analyzing, and visual generation, and can even surpass human capacity in certain tasks. However, are these “intelligent” behaviors a reflection of ultimate truth (hakikat), or merely its obscured shadow? This fundamental question compels us to rethink the technological on an onto-epistemological ground. Evaluating AI from this onto-epistemological perspective requires asking fundamental questions not only about what it does, but also about the mode of being it presents, and the foundation of knowledge upon which it rests. This study will address current AI definitions and approaches, as well as the strong/weak AI debate, analyzing the current competencies and onto-epistemological limits of AI technology through the distinction between theoria (nazariyat) and logia (fikriyat). Our aim is to critically evaluate AI's claim to mimic human thought and consciousness, specifically in the context of the pursuit of ultimate truth, and to emphasize the responsibilities of philosophy in this new era.

The Impact of “Logic” in Artificial Intelligence

Dilek Başerer — 2025-12-31

Artificial intelligence has evolved based on many science disciplines, including but not limited to computers, math, physics, biology, law, psychology, ethics, neuroscience, engineering, economics, etc. One of these fields is logic. The study the role of logic on the building and evolution of artificial intelligence, the logic behind artificial intelligence, the impact of logic on the progress of artificial intelligence, and with the significance of logic-based artificial intelligence. Thus, responds to what is artificial intelligence logic and how it relates to other logic. The descriptive research design was employed in the current investigation through literature analysis. Study results suggest that logic has an active participation in artificial intelligence formation and development through decision-making based on logical principles and rules, complex problem solving, inference, logically processing mathematical and symbolic codes, appropriate analyzing of information data, and coping with uncertainty through logical thinking

Is it Possible to Engage in Dialogue with Generative AI Technologies?

Burhan BaşarslanYusuf Büyükyılmaz — 2025-12-31

This study analyses the linguistic interaction of human beings with Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) technologies in terms of Hans-Georg Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics. It can thus be concluded that: i) a distinction must be drawn between imitating a function and possessing a property when dealing with the ontology of GAI; ii) GAI technologies are capable of imitating certain human-like mental functions without necessarily possessing the human-like properties that underpin these functions; iii) the transformation of perception that has occurred in the postmodern period, coupled with the perception that GAI possesses human-like properties, gives rise to an ontological illusion.

Herodotus and the Philosophy of History: Narrative, Ethical and Philosophical Dimensions of the Histories

Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı — 2025-12-31

This article approaches Herodotus’s Histories as an inquiry that transforms the mere recording of events into a reflective explanation. It highlights three concrete contributions: plural narration with explicit source criticism, causal analysis that spans natural and human affairs, and ethnographic comparison that frames ethical questions about hubris, fortune, and custom. In doing so, the article also underscores the moral and universal dimension of Herodotus’s vision, where human responsibility intersects with divine order. Placing Herodotus in dialogue with Hegel, Collingwood, Ricoeur, White, and Koselleck, the study shows how his practice anticipates modern concerns with freedom and necessity, reenactment, narrative time, emplotment, and the tension between experience and expectation. On this basis, it is argued that Herodotus can be regarded not only as the father of history but also as a precursor of the philosophy of history.

Can the Non-existence of the World be an Act of God? (An Investigation in the Context of the Debate on the Post-Eternity of the World)

Ayşenur Erken — 2025-12-31

This article deals with the debate on whether it is possible for God to perish the existing world. This debate appears in the works of Islamic thought in the context of the post-eternity of the universe. The Felāsifa argue that the universe is necessarily past-eternal and post-eternal. In opposition to this view, it is argued that the universe is not eternal but created and that the post-eternity of the universe is not necessary but possible. In defence of the eternity of the universe, the Felāsifa rely on the claim that the universe's annihilation is impossible. Accordingly, the annihilation of the universe cannot be the act of an agent. For for an agent to be an agent, its action must be related to an existent. However, since non-existence is not an existent thing, the philosophers regard the non-existence of the universe as impossible and assert that the post-eternal existence of the universe is necessary. The strongest objection to this is that the non-existence of the universe can be grasped by reason and that there is no impossibility in God's realisation of something that can be grasped by reason. In the final analysis, this argument attributed to the philosophers is not strong enough to prove the impossibility of the annihilation of the universe, and these claims are open to debate.

The Relationship Between God and the Universe According to Ibn al-Zaghuni

Mustafa Karatay — 2025-12-31

This article examines the views of the Hanbali scholar Ibn al-Zaghuni regarding the concepts of body (jism), substance (jawhar), and accident (arad) within the framework of the relationship between God and the universe. Following the translation movements, Greek philosophical heritage entered the Islamic world, introducing atomistic thought into the discussions of kalām. Initiated primarily by the Mu'tazilite theologians, this process was later adopted by the Ash'arites and Maturidites, and even found resonance within the Hanbali tradition. This study analyzes how Ibn al-Zaghuni, a prominent figure who employed rational arguments within the Hanbali school, interpreted atomistic theories and kalām-based arguments. After briefly addressing the introduction of atomistic thought into kalām, the article systematically examines Ibn al-Zaghuni's understanding of body, substance, and accident. In the final section, it explores his arguments concerning the createdness (ḥudūth) of the universe, thereby shedding light on how Ibn al-Zaghuni conceptualized the relationship between God and the universe.

Secrets of the Law and Truth: An Introduction to Maimonides’ Philosophical Reconstruction of Rabbinic Judaism

Alber Erol Nahum — 2025-12-31

This article examines Maimonides’ attempt to integrate philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics and metaphysics) into the legal-hermeneutical core of rabbinic Judaism by reconstructing the lost esoteric teachings of the Oral Torah, especially those concerning the Account of the Beginning (Maʿaseh Bereshit) and the Account of the Chariot (Maʿaseh Merkavah). Focusing on Maimonides’ philosophical and halakhic writings, it explores how he redefines the “secrets of the Torah” not as mystical doctrines, but as philosophical truths grounded in reason and embedded within the Jewish sacred literature. The article also highlights Maimonides’ pedagogical model, based on gradual revelation and esoteric interpretation, aimed at addressing the existential and intellectual crisis of the “perplexed” Torah scholar. It argues that although Maimonides presents his project as a restoration of a lost rabbinic wisdom, it in fact entails a radical reconfiguration of the epistemological and doctrinal foundations of Judaism on both legal and theological levels.

Subject–Subject Ethics and the Women’s Issues: A Murdochian Perspective

Ceylan Coşkuner Kalın — 2025-12-31

As one of the prolific writers of the twentieth century, Iris Murdoch stands out primarily as a moral philosopher, yet she possesses a wide range of interests that span various philosophical disciplines, including ontology, theology, and aesthetics. Despite this breadth of engagement, Murdoch has been criticized for her apparent lack of concern with women’s issues during her lifetime. The primary aim of this study is to assess the validity of such criticisms directed at Murdoch. Although Murdoch cannot be straightforwardly identified as a feminist theorist—and some of her statements may seem to support these accusations—she frequently addresses women’s issues in both her fictional and theoretical works. Accordingly, this study argues that Murdoch was not indifferent to women’s problems; rather, she adopted a philosophical perspective and methodology distinct from those of her feminist contemporaries. Indeed, women’s issues stem from ethical theories and social practices that are nourished by the subject–object dichotomy. Such practices not only give rise to problems specific to women but also to broader human crises such as migration, refugeehood, genocide, violence, and colonization. Therefore, the path toward resolving these issues lies in constructing a new subject–subject ethics grounded in love and attention.

From Moral Law to Human Reality: The Problem of The Origin of Morality in The Context of Feuerbach's Critique of Kant

Kibar Gürbüz — 2025-12-31

This study discusses the problem of grounding morality through Immanuel Kant's reason-centered ethics and Ludwig Feuerbach's human-centered (anthropological) approach. Kant grounds the moral law in the unconditional imperative of pure reason and considers only actions performed "for the sake of duty" moral; thus, to preserve the autonomy of morality, he excludes inclinations, desires, and social determinants. However, this abstraction has been criticized for detaching moral action from human emotional and social reality. Feuerbach, on the other hand, seeks the source of morality not in the transcendental law of reason, but in the essential nature of humanity and its relationship with others. For him, morality is not a command directed toward God, but rather a relationship directed toward humanity. Drawing on Feuerbach's works Das Wesen des Christentums (1841) and Vorlesungen über das Wesen der Religion (1851), the study discusses the possibility of a new integrative ethics by analyzing the tension between universal law and human nature.

Types of Sanctions in the Context of Moral Philosophy

Mirpenç Akşit — 2025-12-31

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the concept of sanctions from the perspective of moral philosophy, examining their role in regulating both individual and societal behavior. Social sanctions function to uphold societal norms, while religious sanctions guide individuals through awareness of divine accountability and the afterlife. Legal sanctions, rooted in state authority, ensure social order and justice, whereas conscience-based sanctions shape behavior through the individual’s internal moral compass. Political and professional sanctions foster compliance and responsibility within bureaucratic, administrative, and professional contexts, while familial and natural sanctions regulate behavior in domestic and natural relationships. The distinctive contribution of this study lies in its inclusion of political and professional sanctions, thereby integrating all types of sanctions within a single, cohesive framework. It highlights the interconnectedness of various sanctions and their critical role in promoting both individual virtue and societal stability. Ultimately, the article underscores the significance of sanctions in sustaining moral and social order.

Deleuze: The Literary Machine Against the Sado-Masochistic Syndrome

Gül Turanlı — 2025-12-31

Deleuze, drawing on the relationship between matter and form, undertakes an analysis within the philosophy-art context in the section where he addresses the bodiless body as the intensity defining productive thought in art. To liberate collectivity from the personal management of memory and the collective ideal of remembrance, he focuses on conceptualising fragments and particles within flows, based on contexts of transformation and change, as opposed to a mental and linear process within a specific temporality. For this reason the author invents a new, almost, a foreign language within the language. In What is Philosophy, Deleuze dwells upon the relationship between philosophy and literature in a conceptual contextuality and connectivity with art while describing inventing as “the power to produce” and “to create”. This observation not only questions the logistics of existence in terms of movement, but also demonstrates a genuine admiration for the subjects and objects of life in his writings, while providing a source for his own propositions concerning vitalism. Most of the time, this source manifests itself through Deleuze’s philosophical, psychological, and scientific reinterpretation of names and texts selected from the history of philosophy: Spinoza versus Descartes, Nietzsche versus Kant, Sacher-Masoch versus Sade.

Key Concepts of Philosophical Counseling

Mustafa Çevik — 2025-12-31

This article aims to provide a systematic overview of the key concepts that form the theoretical foundation of philosophical counseling, clarifying both its practical and conceptual dimensions. Unlike psychotherapy, philosophical counseling does not rely on clinical diagnosis; instead, it seeks to understand individuals through their values, worldviews, modes of reasoning, and existential concerns. Within this framework, the article examines central concepts such as autonomy, worldview, philosophical health, practical philosophy, self-awareness, critical thinking, value clarification, emotional reasoning, meaning and purpose in life, perspective shifting, guiding virtues, the Socratic method, existential awareness, and personal responsibility. Each concept is grounded in the works of major thinkers including Aristotle, Epictetus, Kant, Dewey, Jung, Heidegger, Frankl, Yalom, Hadot, Paul & Elder, and Marinoff, demonstrating how these ideas translate into concrete counseling practices. The analysis emphasizes the role of philosophical counseling in fostering clarity of thought, strengthening personal coherence, deepening meaning-making processes, and cultivating an ethically oriented life practice. Ultimately, this study offers a comprehensive conceptual framework for the emerging field of philosophical counseling in Turkey and serves as a methodological reference for practitioners and researchers.

The Collapse of the Concept of Distance in the Digital Age and Its Implications: An Inquiry Through Baudrillard and Byung-Chul Han

Özgül Ekinci — 2025-12-31

The era we live in represents a new phase of technology, namely digitalization. In his works, Baudrillard examines the historical transformation of this era in the context of the relationship between technology and reality. He interprets this historical change through concepts such as simulacrum, simulation, hyperreality, integral reality, virtual reality, and mass media. Baudrillard views the technological revolution we are experiencing not as part of a scientific revolution process, but as an irreversible turning point for humanity. In this study, this turning point is analyzed through the concept of the “collapse of distance.” While Baudrillard’s readings offer us an image of the collapse of external distance (a collapse in terms of ontology and society alongside technology), one of Baudrillard’s contemporary interpreters, Byung-Chul Han, focuses on the collapse of the subject's distance from themselves by merging Baudrillardian concepts with his own philosophical framework, presenting the effects of this collapse on individual existence. Thus, this article evaluates, through the concept of the “collapse of distance” in the digital age, the reflections of this collapse in both external and internal contexts of life.

The Problem of Freedom and Authority in Bertrand Russell's Philosophy of Education

Selahattin Aydar — 2025-12-31

This study examines the issues of freedom and authority addressed by British philosopher Bertrand Russell in his philosophy of education. Russell's views focused on the balance between individual freedom and various authorities. Using qualitative research methods, the study explores Bertrand Russell's views on freedom and authority in his works and examines their relationship to education. The data obtained in the study highlights Russell's emphasis on the state and church's attempts to maintain their power by exploiting education for religious and political reasons, while ignoring the benefits of children. He posits that parents establish a certain authority mechanism over children to protect their financial expectations and family prestige. Russell rejected absolute authority over education and argued for a certain harmony between freedom and discipline. However, he placed no restrictions on freedom of thought. His educational approach aimed to emphasize the importance of critical thinking, the unleashing of individual potential, and the support of intellectual and moral development, emphasizing that authorities were the greatest obstacle to these developments. Believing that the teacher was the most important and influential element in school life, Russell argued that the teacher was a guide in matters such as freedom of thought and critical thinking skills. He also emphasized that authoritarian attitudes could be overcome through love and argued that an education delivered with love would serve world peace. We believe this study will contribute to the renewed discussion of the problem of freedom and authority in today's education system.

Philosophy for Children: An Application on Selfness, Otherness, and Intellectual Development

Banu Alan Sümer — 2025-12-31

This study emerged as the outcome of a project examining the pedagogical significance of philosophy activities conducted with primary school children and their effects on individual development. Within the scope of the project, the aim was to foster the development of children’s creative and critical thinking skills. In the project, various philosophical themes appropriate to the children’s age and developmental levels were identified; issues of selfhood, identity, and otherness were opened to discussion, particularly through Leo Lionni’s Pezzettino, in ways suited to the children’s experiences and inquiries. The activities were conducted under the guidance of Matthew Lipman’s philosophy with children approach and pedagogical techniques such as the Socratic method, which supported the enhancement of children’s cognitive abilities. Consequently, participating children actively engaged with philosophical thinking, deepening their capacity to question themselves and their surroundings. The findings demonstrate that establishing philosophical thinking environments at an early age is effective in fostering children’s critical and creative thinking skills.

A Research on the Use of Philosophy for Children (P4C) Education Program in Religious Education

Mehmet SuCemil Oruç — 2025-12-31

The aim of this study is to examine the impact of Philosophy for Children (P4C) education on the development of religious thinking. A mixed-methods research design was employed. The study was structured according to a convergent parallel mixed-methods design. The quantitative data were obtained through the “Faith or Worldview Development Scale,” which was administered to both the experimental and control groups. The qualitative data, on the other hand, were derived from student journals, student interview forms, and the analysis of video recordings collected throughout the sessions. The dialogues that emerged during the sessions were transcribed and coded through a multi-layered analytical process. After each session, students were asked to keep journals in which they reflected on the weekly activities, and these journals were later refined through thematic coding. At the end of the experimental process, interviews were conducted with the students to evaluate their impressions and the competencies they had developed during the sessions. Findings obtained from both the qualitative and quantitative data indicate that the P4C program does not undermine students’ religious commitment; rather, it strengthens it. Furthermore, the program was found to contribute to the development of various cognitive skills, including comprehension, inquiry, awareness, real-life association, interpretation, and reasoning.

Logic-Based Therapy as a Philosophical Counseling Model

Fatih ÖzkanMurat Uzunhasanoğlu — 2025-12-31

This study examines the Logic-Based Therapy (LBT) model, which addresses logical fallacies and rational inconsistencies at the root of psychological problems as philosophical issues. LBT is a authentic therapy model that aims to transform individuals by identifying reasoning errors, logical inconsistencies, and philosophical deficiencies underlying emotional and behavioral disorders, and offering "transcendental philosophical antidotes" (i.e., virtuous principles acting as antidotes). Unlike classical therapy models that center on causality, LBT focuses on the consistency of logical inferences and aims to build virtuous life habits by supporting cognitive adjustments related to the client with concrete behavioral changes. Emerging from the Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) tradition, LBT has become one of the pioneering methods of philosophical counseling. The model uses the fundamental axioms of formal logic as a tool to identify flawed inferences, refute irrational premises, and guide the client towards ‘transcendent virtues’ such as metaphysical security, courage, and moderation. Thus, it aims not only to ‘free’ the individual from their problems but also to help them achieve a healthy personality structure in every aspect; that is, a personality structure that is consistent in intellectual, emotional, and behavioral terms. In this article, the cardinal fallacies that form the theoretical framework of the model and the transcendent virtues that balance these fallacies are analyzed within the context of the discipline of philosophical counseling.

Epicurus as a Therapist and Epicureanism as a Therapeutic Method

Ahmet Faruk Çağlar — 2025-12-31

In ancient Greece, philosophy was seen as a life practice that would lead to happiness. However, Greek philosophers differed in their views on the content of happiness. Moreover, the most powerful and pervasive element in the Socratic tradition is the idea that the role of philosophy is to provide rational foundations for individual happiness. When we remember that Epicurus considered himself a member of this tradition and Socrates its pioneer, it becomes clearer that Epicurus also viewed philosophy as essential for happiness and spiritual health, and that he perceived the philosopher as a kind of mental health practitioner. According to Epicurus, to achieve spiritual serenity and lead a happy life, one must engage in philosophy throughout one's life. In this article, the suggestions of Epicurean philosophy that can form the basis of a modern psychological treatment method will be presented, and it will be argued that the philosopher's suggestions for a happy life can provide new opportunities for the modern individual to overcome some of his psychological problems.

A Defence of Epistocracy as a Normative Model of Democratic Governance

Eray YağanakKurtuluş Alp — 2025-12-31

This study contends that democracy, grounded in the principles of equality and pluralism, paradoxically becomes susceptible to flawed decision-making due to these very ideals. It critically examines the epistemic deficiencies inherent in democratic participation, positing that the right to vote should not solely be justified by equality but also by considerations of knowledge and competence to enhance the quality of political decision-making. The study advocates for an epistocratic model of governance, wherein citizens endowed with epistemic competence assume a more significant role, thereby preserving democracy's foundational commitment to equality. In contrast to aristocracy, epistocracy does not endorse minority rule but seeks political legitimacy through demonstrable competence. Drawing upon Condorcet’s principle of the rational majority, the study argues that epistocracy augments, rather than undermines, democratic engagement. The research addresses two key questions: how electoral outcomes might shift if voting were contingent upon competence, and how a system in which only the "competent" can exercise the vote would function. It concludes that an epistocratic system, by prioritizing competence, may be more democratic and conducive to the common good, harmonizing individual equality with the collective capacity for rational decision-making

Man, Freedom and Responsibility in Jean-Paul Sartre

Yakup YıldızDemet Ataş — 2025-12-31

Jean-Paul Sartre is one of the most important philosophers of existentialist philosophy. His thought, shaped around the principle that "existence precedes essence," centers on human freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning. Humans are defined as "being- for- itself," free and responsible beings obligated to create their own essence. This approach rejects attributing a predetermined essence to humans and argues that individuals create their own essence through their choices and actions. Sartre challenges understandings that suggest that essence is given by God. The fundamental basis for his prioritization of existence over essence is his denial of the existence of a creative God. According to him, there is no God. Therefore, there is no pre-given essence for humans. In this respect, Sartre focuses on analyzing human problems of meaning, freedom, and responsibility, based on the absence of God. In this study, Sartre's atheist existentialism will be discussed with a conceptual and descriptive method in terms of the nature, freedom and responsibility of human, and in this context, the necessity of human to constitute their own existence and the resulting anguish, nihilation, freedom and escape from freedom will be examined on an ontological and ethical plane.

David Hume's Irony in the Natural History of Religion

Nurten Öztanrıkulu Özel — 2025-12-31

David Hume, in The Natural History of Religion, investigates the origins of religious phenomena in human nature. This investigation is carried out through an ironic approach that is characteristic of Hume’s thought. In a controversial subject such as religion, it is not surprising that irony is particularly favored by a skeptical philosopher; for the nature of religion is especially well-suited to be addressed from an ironic perspective by a skeptic. Although Hume’s ironic approach to religion has mostly been studied by Hume scholars with a focus on the Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, it is evident that irony is also prominently present in The Natural History of Religion. Nevertheless, there are very few studies in the literature that thoroughly examine irony in the context of The Natural History of Religion. This study aims to reveal how Hume addresses natural religion and religious phenomena in an ironic manner in The Natural History of Religion. By irony, what is meant here is not simply the use of sarcastic, provocative, or disparaging language; these are merely some among the many forms irony may take. The central claim of this study is that the irony in The Natural History of Religion is not merely a rhetorical device, but rather a philosophical attitude that constitutes one of the fundamental components of Hume’s skepticism.